Women and Hypnosis (2026)
Julie H. Linden
Private Practice
Correspondence: Julie@drjulielinden.com
Key words: hypnosis, women, imaginative involvement, pediatric hypnosis, social-psychobiological
The field of hypnosis has been replete with women who have contributed to research, clinical innovation, theory, healthcare, and leadership. Many were pioneers in bringing a relational and empathic perspective to the application of hypnosis, which in its early history was dominated by men. These accomplished women offer a range of ideas, perspectives, and clinical experiences. Often overlooked and devalued except for their procreative ability, women benefited from feminists’ activists in the last several centuries who wrested rights and power once only in the purview of men.
What follows is a brief overview of distinguished women outliers and torchbearers, women who had the courage and curiosity to embrace agency, equality, compassion, embodiment, and empathy (Bolen, 2003; Linden, 1999) in their professional influence on the field of clinical hypnosis, mentoring and modeling one another and the next generations.
Josephine Hilgard, MD, PhD, partnered with Ernest Hilgard and working in the Stanford University hypnosis laboratory, was emblematic of the women of her generation – mothers and caretakers. She explored child development, researching hypnosis with children while acquiescing to her husband’s place in the spotlight. Her term “imaginary involvement” (1970) forms the foundation of our understanding of child development and hypnotic responding. She also coauthored a groundbreaking book on The Hypnotherapy of Pain in Children with Cancer (1984) with Samuel LeBaron, again directing a lens on children and building on her husband’s research on pain and neodissociation theory.
The women most often associated with hypnosis and children, is pediatrician researcher Karen Olness, MD. She co-authored the essential text on Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy with Children. She co-authored the first and second editions with Gail Gardner (Gardner & Olness, 1981; Olness & Gardner, 1988), and later editions with Daniel Kohen (Olness & Kohen, 1996; Kohen & Olness, 2011, 2022). She served as president of ASCH in 1984, SCEH in 1991–1993, and ISH from 2003–2006 (a triple hitter) and was also president of the Society for Behavioral and Developmental Pediatrics.
The Stanford hypnosis laboratory produced another researcher, experimental psychologist Helen J. Crawford, PhD. Her work on the neuropsychology of hypnosis explored the constructs of daydreaming (Crawford, 1982), attention (Crawford, Brown, et al., 1993), and hypnotic analgesia (Crawford, Gur, et al., 1993). Her EEG studies helped legitimize hypnosis by demonstrating physiological brain changes during trance states. Of interest, the Hypnosis Listserv was started by Helen to connect researchers of hypnosis around the world; it is now co-sponsored by ASCH, SCEH, and ISH.
Éva Bányai, PhD also emerged from the hypnosis research laboratory at Stanford, where she developed the active-alert hypnotic induction (Bányai et al., 1993). Her research lab in Hungary built on the work of Hungarian psychoanalyst Sandor Ferenzi (1909-1965) who studied the interactive qualities of relationships and coined the term Maternal Hypnosis. He distinguished between the maternal and paternal styles, the former being more empathic and interactive and the latter more authoritarian (Linden, 2026a). Under her leadership the Hungarian research department studied multidimensional interactions in hypnosis, which led to a social-psychobiological model of hypnosis (Bányai, 1991, 2012), the first systemic model for the embodied mind.
Another partnered woman, and immigrant from Bavaria, Helen H. Watkins, MS, developed Ego State Therapy with her husband John (Jack) Watkins (Watkins & Watkins, 1997). Recognized for her resonance with students, Jack often referred to her as the force behind his work. Their work integrated clinical hypnosis with our understanding of dissociative phenomena.
Claire Fredericks, MD, a psychiatrist and prolific writer, coauthored a definitive book on dissociation and hypnosis, Healing the Divided Self (Phillips & Fredericks, 1995). Her second book, Inner Strengths, coauthored with Shirley McNeal (1999), highlighted her work on ego strengthening, empowering clients through hypnosis skills reflecting the permissive, caretaking emotional style of maternal hypnosis.
A leading scholar of hypnosis was Ericka Fromm, PhD, best known for her development of hypnoanalysis. She cowrote Hypnotherapy and Hypnoanalysis (1986), and Hypnosis and Behavioral Medicine (1987) with Daniel Brown, PhD, both significant contributions to the broad range of applications of hypnosis.
Clinical hypnosis has cross fertilized professions since its post-World War II resurgence, bringing medical, dental and psychotherapists together. A leader in dental hypnosis was Kay Thompson, D.D.S. She was the first woman student in the University of Pittsburgh Dental School, the first woman president of the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis (1972) and an eager student of and collaborator with Milton Erickson. Her collected works were gathered in the Art of Therapeutic Communication (Kane & Olness, 2004), a tribute to her creative and inspirational nature.
Like Kay who traveled the world teaching hypnosis skills to health care professionals, Marlene Hunter, MD, was one of the flying doctors in Canada serving remote regions with her blend of physical and psychological care. She self-published a book on hypnosis that became a best-seller in Canada.
This overview has omitted many other Msmers, Mentors, and Models. For a fuller account of the many, many women distinguishing themselves in the hypnosis world, see Linden (2026b).
References
Bányai, É. I. (1991). Toward a social-psychobiological model of hypnosis. In S. J. Lynn, & J. W. Rhue (Eds.). Theories of hypnosis: Current models and perspectives. (pp. 564-598). Guilford Press.
Bányai, É. I., Zseni, A., Túry, F. (1993). Active-alert hypnosis in psychotherapy. In J. W. Rhue, S. J. Lynn, & I. Kirsch (Eds.). Handbook of clinical hypnosis (pp. 271-290). American Psychological Association.
Bányai, É. I. (2012). Mesmerism symposium: The contributions of women to hypnosis. Presentation to the International Society of Hypnosis, Bremen, Germany.
Bolen, J. (2003). Crones don’t whine. Conari Press.
Brown, D., & Fromm, E. (1986). Hypnotherapy and hypnoanalysis. Routledge
Brown, D., & Fromm, E. (Eds) (1987). Hypnosis and behavioral medicine. Routledge.
Crawford, H. J. (1982). Hypnotizability, daydreaming styles, imagery vividness, and absorption: A multidimensional study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 915–926. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.42.5.915
Crawford, H. J., Brown, A. M., & Moon, C. E. (1993). Sustained attentional and disattentional abilities: Differences between low and highly hypnotizable persons. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 534–543. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.102.4.534
Crawford, H. J., Gur, R. C., Skolnick, B., Gur, R. E., & Benson, D. M. (1993). Effects of hypnosis on regional cerebral blood flow during ischemic pain with and without suggested hypnotic analgesia. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 15, 181–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8760(93)90002-7
Frederick, C. & McNeal, S. (1999). Inner strengths: Contemporary psychotherapy and hypnosis for ego-strengthening. Routledge.
Gardner, G., & Olness, K. (1981). Hypnosis and hypnotherapy with children. Grune & Stratton.
Hilgard, J. (1970). Personality and hypnosis: A study of imaginative involvement. University of Chicago Press.
Hilgard, J., & LeBaron, S. (1984). Hypnotherapy of pain in children with cancer. William Kaufmann, Inc.
Kane, S., & Olness, K (2004). The art of therapeutic communication. Crown House.
Kohen, D., & Olness, K. (2011). Hypnosis and hypnotherapy with children (4th ed.). Routledge Publications.
Kohen, D., & Olness, K. (2022). Hypnosis with children (5th ed.). Routledge Publications.
Linden, J. (1999). Discussion of symposium enhancing healing: The contributions of hypnosis to women’s health care. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 42, 140-145. https://doi.org/10.1080/00029157.1999.10701731
Linden, J. (2026a). Women hold up half the sky. Guest editorial for first women’s special issue. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 68(3), 191-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/00029157.2026.2710552
Linden, J. (2026b). The contributions of women to hypnosis – MsMers, menders, mentors, American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 68(3), 267-279. https://doi.org/10.1080/00029157.2026.2643876
Olness, K., & Gardner, D. (1988). Hypnosis and hypnotherapy with children (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Olness, K., & Kohen, D. (1996). Hypnosis and hypnotherapy with children (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
Phillips, M. & Frederick, C. (1995). Healing the divided self: Clinical and Ericksonian hypnotherapy for post-traumatic and dissociative conditions. W. W. Norton & Co.
Watkins, J., & Watkins, H. (1997). Ego states: Theory and therapy. W.W. Norton & Co.